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Country Reports on Education Bosnia and Herzegovina   Searching for a Strategy ...: Multiethnicity, Tolerance and National Stereotypes in the Educational Systems of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Christof Bender   I. Introduction War and the disintegration of Bosnia and Herzegovina affected its educational system more than in any other eastern European country in transition (except maybe the Kosovo region). Ethnic cleansing produced predominantly ethnically homogenous areas and enabled the fragmentation of education along ethnic lines. The proclaimed Serbian Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina (later renamed Republika Srpska) and the Croatian Republic of Herceg-Bosna (later renamed Croatian Community of Herceg-Bosna) established their own educational systems, oriented towards Belgrade and Zagreb respectively. This led not only to a deep social change in the form of the segregation of the young generation, but also to a structural re-organisation of education. Out of the unified and highly centralised pre-war system three independent and to some extent incompatible educational systems emerged, teaching different languages, histories and ethics, based on different laws and curricula. Three and a half years of fighting throughout the country, ethnic cleansing and intensive long-time shelling of towns also contributed to a serious decrease in the quality of education. Over the whole country educational institutions suffered from deprivation of resources: facilities, teaching material, and teachers. These developments had long-time consequences, outlasting the Washington Agreement as well as the Dayton Peace Agreement (DPA). The development of the educational system(s) is deeply intermingled with the overall situation in BiH. This makes projects dealing with education for tolerance and understanding, human rights education, civic education and the like extremely difficult. Educational institutions are shaping images of the young generation and determine their perceptions of people belonging to the respective "other groups". Without children with open and moderate attitudes, the long-term chances for a democratic and stable Bosnia and Herzegovina are very low. In order to understand the problematic of these issues, it is necessary to sketch the relevant factors determining the development of education in BiH (Chapter II). Chapter III provides a survey of relevant activities. Afterwards problems faced by current initiatives and future perspectives are briefly discussed (Chapter IV). The conclusion (Chapter V) closes with some recommendations.   II. Background – Key-Factors A. Pre-War and Post-War Education Education in former Yugoslavia was structured in a similar way to the Western educational systems. Essentially, this general framework has not been modified. Primary school (osnovna škola) is attended for eight years. For the first four years one single teacher teaches basically all subjects. From the fifth grade onwards, separate subjects are taught by different teachers. Secondary education is provided by grammar schools (gimnasija) with general orientation, and vocational schools (stručna škola) with more professional orientation (medical schools, dentist schools, technical schools, etc.). Vocational schools can be attended for three or four years, the latter permitting access to university. Undergraduate studies generally last from four to five years. A masters degree can be attained by additional two-year courses (mostly organised in a way that people already working are able to participate). Doctoral Studies are organised individually, and are pursued mainly by university assistants. The big difference to the pre-war system lies in the contents of different subjects (especially history, nature and society, language and literature, art and music). Currently, three different curricula are in use – two of them designed in neighbouring countries (Croatia and Yugoslavia). Schools in the RS exclusively work with Yugoslav curricula and textbooks and teach only Serb language. In Croat controlled territories of the Federation, Croat curricula, textbooks and language are in use. In areas under Bosniac control, pupils are taught in the Bosnian language, according to the curriculum and the textbooks of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Children not belonging to the dominant group of their school either accept being taught according to the respective "other" curriculum, or have to attend school in another area where they belong to the majority group. In ethnically homogenous regions the latter is hardly possible. This is a considerable problem for the children of minority returnees1, and should be addressed by the international community immediately. In a few schools, such as the private Catholic School Centre in Sarajevo, children not belonging to the majority group receive special education according to their ethnic background. In all three new educational systems the subject "Marxism" was removed, and some religious classes were introduced.2 With the exception of Una-Sana Canton, Sarajevo Canton, Bosnia–Podrinje Canton (Goražde), and some schools in Tuzla-Podrinje Canton the Cyrillic alphabet is no longer taught in the Federation.3 In the RS, where Cyrillic was used exclusively over the last few years, the Latin alphabet is reportedly about to be re-introduced.   B. Legal and Political Fragmentation The state of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two entities, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. Whereas the latter is centrally organised, the Federation is divided into ten cantons. Each of them has its own constitution, a cantonal assembly, a governor (president) and ministers. Thus, 13 constitutions exist in Bosnia. This makes political decision-making a very sensitive and difficult task. As far as education is concerned, the constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, formulated in Annex 4 of the Dayton Peace Agreement (DPA), transfers educational issues to the entities.4 Whereas educational matters in the RS are clearly assigned to the Ministry of Education and Science, the Federation lacks a clear determination of educational competencies. The division of responsibilities between the Federation Ministry for Education, Science, Culture, and Sports and the cantonal ministries dealing with education is not completely clarified.5 According to the Federation Constitution, each canton can transfer authorities concerning education to municipalities, and is obliged to do so if the majority of the population in the municipality is not the majority population in the entire canton.6 This leaves the country with no central body to co-ordinate educational matters, but with 12 ministries and some municipality representatives involved in education. Some cantonal ministries have no more than 3 employees. Another problem is that some of the cantons have not yet developed educational laws, leaving educational matters without clear jurisdiction. The Federation Ombudsmen pointed out that "the field of elementary and high school education has not been adequately legally regulated and brought into accordance with the provisions set forth in the BiH Federation Constitution".7 Currently, any initiative for a common reform or at least a common approach meets extensive difficulties, as competencies are not completely clarified and the agreement of too many political decision-makers is needed.   C. The Political Side of Education Despite some – at least partly – promising developments on the political scene during the last year, nationalistic/ethnic leaders still dominate politics in Bosnia and Herzegovina on all three sides. Most leaders in power, especially of the Serb and Croat communities, stick to the principle of ethnic segregation and emphasise the importance of Serb or Croat identity respectively. Politicians are continuously trying to increase their influence on education. The new draft of the university law of the Sarajevo Canton is a serious threat to the autonomy of the university. For example, the appointments of the rector, deans and even honorary doctors have to be confirmed by the cantonal assembly.8 Educational institutions are of great importance for the development of national/ethnic identities. Language, history, nature and society, but also geography, fine arts and music can be used not only to construct a certain identity, but also to promote racial hatred and intolerance. About half of the pupils attending school in BiH learn history, geography, nature and society as well as language and literature from textbooks printed in Croatia and Yugoslavia, designed for pupils of these countries. All textbooks in use in BiH blame the respective "other sides" for being guilty for the war, having been the aggressor, and having committed war crimes. In the RS and in Croat dominated areas commitment towards a united Bosnia and Herzegovina is more than reluctant. Croat pupils are taught that Franjo Tudjman is their president and Serbs that the RS is a sovereign state, which emerged after aggression by a Croat-Muslim conspiracy. Education is one of the most politicised spheres of contemporary Bosnian societies. Attempts to improve the quality of educational practice are often overruled by narrow (nationalistic) political interests. As long as no major change in Bosnian politics occurs, the emergence of different and more moderate approaches towards educational policy is improbable.   D. The Heritage of old Structures Bosnia and Herzegovina is not only recovering from war, but it is also a country in transition from a communist to a market economy. Whereas the other eastern European countries have been able to concentrate on necessary changes for the last 10 years, Bosnia and Herzegovina was pre-occupied by war and the reconstruction process. Even now, international (and local) actors often ignore this status of economic and social transition. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a new, democratic constitution and a wide range of new governmental bodies and institutions. Nevertheless, under the surface, many old structures have survived and continue to determine politics and society. BiH is still very far from a society with a developed democratic conscience. Many pre-war leaders are still in power, and a large part of the population is not sufficiently aware of their rights and (democratic) duties. For 45 years under communist rule political disagreement in public was banned. Basically, there was one party, one Yugoslavia, and one leader – Tito, and these were not to be criticised. This attitude of political passivity seems to have survived till today – to the benefit of nationalistic leaders. The educational sector must take into account economic and social trends. It plays a major role in preparing the young generation for the society they will have to live in. The emerging generation will determine future Bosnian society and if and how democratic it will be. Unfortunately the educational systems are still deeply rooted in pre-war (and war) structures: Old laws (with some amendments) are still in force in many fields. Up to now the educational structure has only slightly been modified in order to meet the demands of contemporary Bosnian society and a free labour market. Basically, only religious classes and some computer courses were introduced, and the subject "Marxism" was removed. The general framework remained intact and as conservative as before. Cost-efficiency relations do not seem to be considered important for overall educational planning. There is a considerable number of higher education institutions with fewer than 100 students. It seems that – as in former Yugoslavia – it is almost impossible to close an institution, once established. The decision making body for school management in the Federation (financial planning, overall planning, decisions on extraordinary activities, etc.) is the school board (upravni odbor, during former Yugoslavia: savjet – workers council). It consists of five people and the headmaster, who has no right to vote. Probably because of the relatively high recompense (minimum 150 DEM monthly for sometimes only five meetings per year) these positions are often held by individuals with good connections to the ruling party. A special problem of higher education is that it is decentralised to a level making overall planning very difficult. Universities consist of a loose association of its member institutions, with very little power at the rector level. Each faculty is very independent and enjoys a high degree of freedom to organise their affairs according to the dean’s expectations. The attitude of teaching still emphasises the memorising of encyclopaedic knowledge, instead of fostering independent and critical thinking. E. Lack of Resources Shortage of funds for education was already a problem in former Yugoslavia. From 1975 to 1985 the percentage of national income spent on education fell from 5.4 to 3.4.9 "For years the universities had no money to buy books and journals, and their laboratory equipment was obsolete."10 Educational institutions still operate under difficult material conditions. According to the priorities of (foreign) reconstruction efforts, generally primary schools are better off than secondary schools, which still do better than higher education institutions. Still many primary schools are damaged or host refugees (especially in RS), lack heating or proper water supply (especially in the countryside), lack basic infrastructure as well as proper teaching equipment. In villages, schools often operate in shifts, and one of the most serious problems is the lack of (well-educated) teachers. These very obvious difficulties, which make the maintenance of regular teaching practice a serious challenge, are often considered more urgent than human rights education, minority issues, and education for tolerance and mutual understanding.   F. War, Tolerance, and Reconciliation The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina not only left about 200.000 people dead, about 2 million without their homes, and a big part of the pre-war population of 4.3 million with casualties within their families. Four years of fighting not only led to the collapse of basically the whole (already badly affected) economy of the country, not only made big parts of its land useless for agriculture due to heavy mining, and not only impoverished the vast majority of the population on all sides. The war with all its local conflicts, ethnic cleansing and nationalistic policy virtually destroyed a whole society. The nationalistic agenda of the main protagonists dominated, stereotypes of the "barbarian other" were internalised, prejudices radicalised, history rewritten on all three sides, and the idea that Bosniacs, Serbs, and Croats could co-exist was abandoned by a large part of the population. It seems that current attitudes towards a multiethnic Bosnia and Herzegovina of the people living on the territory of BiH are very much determined by individual war-experiences. For sure without extensive media propaganda and the systematic planting of "barbarian" images this war would hardly have been possible. But the fact that a lot of people were let down by neighbours, close friends, or even partners belonging to other ethnic groups probably had an even deeper impact. In the end, people tend to judge by generalising their individual experiences. "Re-brain-washing" cannot compensate for these experiences. Bosnians have to experience that others in reality do not match their horrifying images of Četniks, Ustaše or Muslim fundamentalists. It is essential not only to teach about democracy, tolerance, and human rights, but also to support exchange between the different groups, teachers and pupils as well as parents. As young pupils do not have the experience of pre-war Bosnia, they bear an even bigger potential for easy national indoctrination.   III. The Current Situation – Survey of Initiatives The situation regarding tolerance and democracy in Bosnian education can be summarised as follows: Three distinct educational systems are in place, all three of them providing curricula and textbooks stimulating ethnic separation, national stereotypes and prejudices rather than reconciliation, tolerance and understanding. Three different histories are taught, all of them neglecting or at least underestimating the multiethnic and multireligious history of the country. Minority issues, education for human rights, conflict prevention and resolution, and civic education are not incorporated in any curricula used in BiH. This leaves organisations working in this field with a series of problems and many obstacles they have to face when implementing projects. The following survey of activities in this field is intended to give an idea of current initiatives, different approaches and respective problems.   A. Overall Initiatives for Analysis and General Planning 1. On the initiative of the OHR11,UNESCO, the Council of Europe, the World Bank and other international organisations, the minister of the Federation Ministry of Education, Science, Culture, and Sports, his deputy, and the Minister of Education and Science of the RS have been meeting monthly since spring 1998. They signed an agreement on textbook review on May 18, 1998. According to this agreement specialists from all three sides will review all textbooks in use throughout BiH in primary and secondary education. A first meeting was held in August in Neum. First interim reports were prepared for each subject by specialists from all three sides, but they hardly exceeded one page and some groups could not prepare a report at all. Not all relevant books had been exchanged prior to the meeting, but in the meantime this has been achieved and supplementary interim reports are in preparation. The OHR envisages a next meeting for the beginning of October. The ministers agreed to finance the project out of World Bank funds dedicated to education. 2. On 22 January 1997 the Federation Ministry of Education issued an instruction to all cantonal ministers urging them to implement two different curricula (Bosniac and Croat) over the whole territory of the Federation. As the cantons did not react, the letter was sent once more on 15 July. The instruction states that where one people is in a minority, it has the right to (1) organise separate schools, (2) organise classes using a different curriculum than the rest of the school, or (3) organise separate classes for national subjects (language, history, etc.) within the existing school. Local NGOs, teachers, and parents in Sarajevo and Tuzla, as well as international organisations perceived this instruction as contributing heavily to the segregation of children in schools. Under their pressure the Federation Ministry revoked its decision on 11 November 1997, and Minister Rizvanbegović announced the establishment of a commission for the preparation of a single curriculum and educational program. The deadline of 15 June could not be met. The issue is stuck at the political level, and the new school year (1998/99) started with old curricula. It should be stated that both the instruction itself and the revocation did not significantly change educational practice. Even before the instruction was issued, education was separated along ethnic lines. The big majority of pupils attended schools using curricula that fits their ethnic background. After the revocation this practice did not change. It is doubtful, whether the revocation of the instruction improved the situation at all. The instruction clearly stated that the proposed practice was to be understood as a right, not as an obligation. According to an ECMM/OSCE report, during the nine months before the revocation, only 7 schools took steps towards the implementation of the instruction or questioned their pupils about their ethnic background.12 On the other hand, the revocation did not change the current practice of ethnic segregation in the educational sector. In Vitez for example, Bosniac children are admitted to the reconstructed secondary school in the Croat controlled territory only under the precondition that they will follow the Croat curriculum.13 They prefer to attend Bosniac schools in improvised facilities. If the instruction were still in force, the children could at least attend the same school building. Whereas the arguments of OHR for the suspension of the instruction are correct in principle, the current segregation is ignored. The letter reads as if the instruction would have led to ethnic segregation of pupils, which is not the case. The revocation would have made sense only under the precondition that the problem of ethnic segregation of pupils had been addressed immediately. Considering that the issue was publicly discussed one year ago, practically nothing has happened so far. The issue of curriculum development and textbook review was addressed by various international organisations. UNESCO, CIVITAS International, Council of Europe, and the World Bank are consulting each other on possible projects. UNESCO will send two educational specialists for a fact finding mission on the curricula in use and will organise an international symposium on curriculum development to take place in December or January. UNESCO hopes to launch a two-year initiative afterwards. The idea is to support local bodies to do it themselves. So far no concrete project proposal has been put forward. 3. According to the Sarajevo Declaration14 the Sarajevo Education Working Group was established in March 1998, chaired jointly by OHR and the Council of Europe. Four sub-groups were put in place, all with foreign and local participants, dealing with the following issues: Projects to foster democracy and ethnic tolerance: A letter was sent out to 90 schools and some NGOs in the whole canton inviting them to submit projects encouraging an atmosphere of understanding and tolerance. About two dozen schools and half a dozen NGOs submitted applications, out of which four were selected. Whereas one project aims at workshops on the European Convention for Human Rights, the three others involve direct inter-entity exchange in the form of partnerships with schools in the RS. One project focuses on education on sexual health, problems of drugs and alcohol, the second on joint exhibitions and multimedia activities, the third – a school for disabled children – on teacher, parents and pupil exchange. Unfortunately by late August funding could only be assured for two of these projects15. Taken that this initiative is explicitly mentioned in the Sarajevo Declaration16, to which international key-players committed themselves17 and that the budget of each of these projects lies below 15,000 DEM, this is incomprehensible and particularly discouraging. Listing and reviewing of textbooks: This subgroup aims to identify problematic passages in textbooks of primary and secondary schools used in the Sarajevo Canton, which contribute to intolerance and hatred towards any national group in the society. Efforts are restricted to so-called delicate subjects. An internal interim report including reviews of the textbooks used in History, Nature and Society, Literature, Geography, Grammar, and Fine Arts, was prepared in June. The textbooks for the subjects Music and Civil Defence are still to be reviewed. The interim report does not identify all specific passages. This task as well as the development of the concrete practical procedure for short-term implementation has not been achieved so far. Reviewing complaints of discrimination: Not many concrete cases of complaints of discrimination could be identified. The subgroup now concentrates on public awareness education: informing teachers and pupils about possibilities for complaint, where to address complaints to, etc. Material was prepared for this purpose and will be distributed at the start of the school year. Distribution of educational resources: As governmental funding is exhausted by providing salaries and as these are distributed regardless of ethnic background, the fourth subgroup concluded that there is no discrimination of educational resources. For the moment no activities are ongoing in this field. Nevertheless, big differences in the infrastructure and educational means of different schools (due to other sources of funding) are obvious. A list of schools with very urgent needs or some other survey revealing these differences, which could be useful for further support, has not been undertaken. It should be stated that the situation in Sarajevo is a special one. It is Bosniac dominated, but has an important moderate opposition. The HDZ (Hrvatska Demokratska Zajednica), the nationalistic Croat party, is very weak in this canton. Whatever succeeds in Sarajevo, cannot automatically be transferred to other cantons.   B. Training and Education Activities CIVITAS@Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Council of Europe are currently engaged in Civic Education Projects. The two initiatives are intermingled (Council of Europe is one of the founders of Civitas International), and several activities were conducted in co-operation, especially in 1996 and 1997. A network of program co-ordinators was established in the Federation and the RS, and 5 day and 2 week civic education seminars for teachers were jointly organised. Both programs try to provide education for local trainers in order to multiply the impact and to strengthen long-term sustainability. Up to now about 3000 Bosnian teachers have been involved in one of the civic education seminars. Civitas@BiH works mainly with American trainers and teaching material (Center for Civic education, American Federation of Teachers). The translated and slightly modified books "Foundations of Democracy" and "Project Citizen" are accepted as complementary teaching material by the local authorities.18 The European trainers (provided by the Council of Europe) reportedly follow an interactive approach, not sticking to fixed materials prepared in their home countries. They focus more on human rights and leave out competitive elements as the "project citizen". Due to these different approaches seminars ceased to be run together in 1998. The Council of Europe now focuses more on the involvement of local institutions like pedagogical institutes and ministries. Civitas has an office in the USIS premises in Sarajevo, whereas the Council of Europe engaged only one permanently part time co-ordinator dealing with the program. Due to more intensive permanent presence in Bosnia, Civitas is in a position to organise additional individual short seminars besides the bigger seminars. The "Civic Education Exchange Program", facilitated by Civitas@BiH, sends once a year a group of local specialists to the United States to select new material, to adapt American teaching material, and to see how civic education functions in the US. A project budget ranging from 300,000 to 500,000 US$ per year (overheads excluded) permits Civitas to be more active than the Council of Europe, who operates with a more restricted budget. The Project "Parents and Teachers Co-operation in Schools and Local Communities", jointly run by the OSCE and KulturKontakt Austria, focuses on possibilities for the participation of teachers and parents in educational decision-making in both entities. Till now four seminars were held, the last one in Tuzla with participants of both entities. A part of the budget is dedicated to locally initiated follow-up activities: For example the participants from Bihač organised a follow-up seminar on their own and invited their counterparts from western RS. In Velika Kladuša a "parents-teacher association" was registered, and in the Posavina Canton the initiative of a school director led the local authorities to discuss the institutionalisation of parents associations in all schools of the canton. A conference with the major part of all seminar participants, planned to take place in November, will primarily aim at discussing further activities, including the possibilities for the establishment of a national teacher-parents association. Intensified involvement of governmental authorities is envisaged. The overall costs of this project are about 160,000 DEM. In spring 1998, the same organisations, KulturKontakt Austria and the OSCE, set up a project on "Democratic School Management". The overall objectives are (1) "to encourage school managers to take a more active role in the development of more multiethnic and democratic educational institutions", and (2) "to strengthen the organisational structure of schools by improving the leadership and management capabilities of school managers".19 Four modules (five days each) designed by Austrian specialists bring together the directors of 32 selected schools of the Federation (21) and the RS (11). Some of the topics of the seminars are: leadership, decision-making, team building, conflict management, dialogue with political parties, development of schools as organisations in a democratic society, and project management. About 25 percent of the overall budget (about 250,000 DEM, provided by KulturKontakt, OSCE, SOROS, and the Austrian Ministry of Education) will be used for small projects developed by the schools involved (individually or in groups). These projects should focus on issues connected with democracy, tolerance, understanding, or the return of refugees.   C. Human Rights Education Before the war there was practically no human rights education in Bosnia and Herzegovina. There is no faculty with a chair for human rights in the country, and this subject also does not receive much attention in other juridical subjects as international or constitutional law. Activities in this field are restricted to small individual initiatives, both at universities and at schools. In December 1996 the Human Rights Centre of the University of Sarajevo was founded on the initiative of numerous international organisations, financed mainly by the EC and the Austrian Government through the Council of Europe. The centre does not provide permanent human rights courses, but works rather on individual projects. The establishment of a similar centre at the University of Banja Luka is foreseen for fall 1998. In early 1998, the Human Rights Centre started an initiative to develop a joint curriculum for human rights at university level for all BiH. A first seminar with participants from the universities of Bihač, Banja Luka, Mostar (East and West), Sarajevo, and Tuzla took place in Sarajevo in May 1998. The centre also prepared a TEMPUS application for the development of such a curriculum. Results from the EU are expected in October. The Helsinki Committee for Human Rights organised human rights courses in grammar schools in Sarajevo and Gorazde in 1996/97, involving some 600 students. An "Album for Human rights" for primary schools is in preparation and should be ready for distribution in autumn. The Sarajevo based NGO "Naša djeca" (Our Children) prepared a textbook on children’s rights for primary schools (3000 copies). All primary schools in the Federation received two copies. A teacher’s manual on the same topic was published (5000 copies) and two-day seminars for teachers were organised in 5 cantons. The other 5 cantons will be covered this school year, but as each seminar involves only 20 to 25 teachers, Naša Djeca foresees these seminars continuing for the years to come. All these activities are low budgeted (15,000 DEM for the book for primary schools, the same amount for the teachers manual, 20,000 DEM for the 5 seminars), sponsored by UNICEF, SOROS and other international organisations. Funding seems to be the major obstacle for enlarging these activities.   D. Inter-Entity Exchange and Communication The suffering and cruelty of war is still very present in the minds of many inhabitants of BiH. National hatred and radicalised stereotypes still dominate (or at least influence) the perception of other ethnic groups for a large part of the population. In such a situation, activities bringing members of different communities together without addressing issues of tolerance and understanding also may have considerable impacts. Sometimes it can be even more effective that individuals receive no explanation or teaching, but just experience that "people from the other side" do not match their prejudiced images. It is often easier to bring together people sharing the same interests than for the sake of directly addressing tolerance and reconciliation. Only a few examples can be listed here. In the last two weeks of July the University of Tuzla and YSY20 organised the third Summer School Tuzla, offering courses in 10 different fields (including human rights) and attracting students from both entities. Together with the International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD), the Management Information Systems Centre (MIS) of the University of Sarajevo (Faculty of Economics) organised in July and August 98 three Summer Schools for Basic Education in computer skills and market economy (two weeks each) for youth and young returnees of the whole country. The European Training Foundation (Turin) co-ordinates a 3.5 Million ECU EU-PHARE project implemented by the Aarhus Technical College (DK). The project is aimed at the development of vocational training in the Federation and RS over the next two years. 40 "key actors" from both entities will work together on plans for strategic reform, and 12 pilot schools from both entities will work in pairs together with a European school on curriculum development. Currently the selection of key actors and pilot schools is in progress. Also UNICEF is running two educational programs, indirectly simulating inter-entity exchange: A project on special education in special classrooms in regular schools involves seven schools from the Federation and two from the RS. Also, representatives from both the Federation Ministry as well as its counterpart in the RS participate in joint seminars (4 per year). This is especially remarkable, as the seminars are organised by the Federation Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sports. Also the project "Traumatised Adolescents in Secondary Schools", so far only run in the Federation, will involve schools from the RS in the forthcoming academic year. The world wide UNESCO Associated School Program (ASP) began to set up its Bosnian network at the end of 1997. 36 schools of the Federation are currently involved in the program. The project is about to be extended to the RS (10 schools). Seminars with the school co-ordinators are held once a year, stimulating networking and joint activities. So far an ecological group, a computer group, and a human rights group were formed, each of them running a small project, supported by US$ 1500 each. The European Union TEMPUS program is aimed at structural development, institution building and curriculum development in the higher education sector. Four "Joint European Projects" (JEP) have been financed so far. The program, originally designed to approach associated member states to the EU countries in the field of higher education, is very slow and inflexible, does not take into account the particular situation in BiH, and hardly meets actual priorities of Bosnian universities. The policy pursued by Brussels to force granted projects to involve universities of all three sides, nevertheless in some cases contributed to the approaching of the three academic communities. A good example of indirect impact is the YouthNet instigated by the German high school organisation Schüler helfen Leben. Besides joint workshops and seminars, its youth magazine Nepitani deserves being mentioned. The magazine (4000 copies each issue) includes articles from all parts of BiH. It is printed as the texts were handed in (Cyrillic or Latin) and distributed all over the country. The Helsinki Citizens Assembly Youth Network in BiH (offices in Banja Luka, Sarajevo, and Tuzla) fosters co-operation and exchange between its more than 55 member organisations from the RS and the Federation. Also, efforts to provide Internet access to schools, NGOs, and universities (mainly provided by SOROS, for universities (and their respective libraries) but also by the Slovenian Government and by WUS Austria) should be perceived as providing means for opening young minds as well as providing means for inter-entity communication. Initiatives for co-ordination in higher education development, instigated by international organisations, bring people together. The Academic Task Force (ATF), under the leadership of the European Rectors Conference, assembled on a few occasions representatives of the universities of Bihač, Mostar (East and West), Sarajevo, and Tuzla, stimulating discussion on the future of higher education in BiH. So far we have not been informed of any concrete outcome.   IV. Future Perspectives When speaking about BiH and education for mutual understanding and tolerance, minority issues, education for human rights, conflict prevention and resolution, civic education and the like, it has to be taken into consideration that Bosnia and Herzegovina is a post-war country in economic and social transition. This country suffers from a political climate dominated by nationalistic approaches, a fragmented and insufficient legal framework, and four years of recent war experience. Given the curricula and especially some textbooks currently in use, attempts to introduce human rights courses or education for tolerance and understanding into regular teaching practice might appear farcical at this moment. So far different approaches have been followed by international and national initiatives. Strategic planning and overall reform – the top-down approach (curricula development, etc.) Individual projects focusing on a concrete issue: civic education, human rights education, democratic school management, etc. – the project approach Indirectly contributing projects – the "side effect" approach Top-down approaches have mainly been instigated by international actors. Ambitious goals, like a single curriculum for the Federation and an all-BiH textbook review were envisaged. These projects meet enormous difficulties and resistance, and move ahead very slowly. Given the actual political situation this is not astonishing. Assuming that the political attitudes towards education will not change significantly in the near future, in the end it will probably depend on the OHR to force through reforms by intensive pressure, including the removal of obstructive officials. But even if the Federation Ministry of Education and the RS counterpart come to an agreement, the 10 Cantons in the Federation are in a position to obstruct implementation by referring to their autonomy on educational issues, provided in the Constitution of the Federation. Obstruction in Croat territories, especially, is highly probable. Croat officials in West Mostar prefer two different curricula on national bases, and emphasised that the educational system must assure the maintenance of Bosnian Croat identity, history, culture and language. Even if an agreement including the cantonal authorities can be reached on paper, its practical implementation would need intensive pressure from the international actors in the form of conditional support, which cannot be taken for granted. Individual projects produce no direct effects on the overall level of educational planning. Although such projects do not affect the educational framework, they effectively change educational practice in limited areas. As educational reform cannot be accomplished on the legal level only, concrete projects are important in preparing the ground for possible future developments, as well as in compensating at least partly the deficiencies of the educational system(s) in the meantime. Western actors often underestimate or are not sufficiently aware of local initiatives and resources. Local expertise exists and should be used more extensively. Local NGOs and initiatives will have an important role in the longer term, when international engagement declines. Serious and well-organised local initiatives are generally cheaper, more effective and they secure self-sustainability. Such organisations should be identified and supported. During the last year a significant increase in educational projects involving people from two or all three ethnic communities could be observed. Even if they are not related to our point of interest, they have to be considered as relevant. Prejudices, national stereotypes, and ethnic hatred are still very widespread in BiH. Most people have not been in contact with individuals from the "other side" for years. Such indirectly contributing projects have an important role in reducing prejudices and ethnic hatred, and may set incentives for further co-operation in a common field of interest. It is easier to bring people with common interests together than for the sake of talking about reconciliation and tolerance. According to a report prepared by the EC and the World Bank, since 1996 the donor community committed 173 million US$ to the education sector.21 A big share was used for physical reconstruction and furniture. No exact figures are available, but following estimations of experts in Sarajevo the percentage must be between 80 and 90 percent, maybe more. Issues like teacher education, institution building, and activities fostering tolerance in the educational sector, received very limited attention so far (hardly more than 5 percent of the international funds were spent in these fields). In allocating funds for physical reconstruction, no priority was given to moderate and open schools. Providing funds for physical reconstruction alone will not lead to the recovery of the education sector in BiH. Definitively more attention has to be paid to the strengthening of human resources through teacher training, civic education programs, democracy and tolerance building projects and supporting substantial developments (curricula, textbooks). Also support for physical reconstruction should be concentrated on schools open for co-operation and moderate approaches. Unfortunately this opportunity has so far been missed.   V. Conclusion – Recommendations Despite the number of ongoing activities the future perspectives are far from promising. Nationalist leaders won the September elections.22 So in the future the initiatives for overall development will meet resistance at the political level. Developing education in BiH will remain a difficult and delicate task. Nevertheless, education has to be perceived as one of the bases for the development of a stable and democratic society in BiH. Engagement has to be increased, on the top-down level as well as on the individual project level. Till now, most of the major international players do not have a single person dealing exclusively with education. This is probably also the reason for weak planning and not considering long-term perspectives, as far as engagement for overall development is concerned: issues such as textbook review or curriculum development are addressed, but activities seem to lack strategic planning. The textbook review subgroup of the Sarajevo Education working group has reviewed the relevant books, but the implementation of its results was left unclear. After the review had already been completed, discussions how to remove offensive passages were still going on. Also, for the whole of the BiH textbook review project, run in co-operation with the RS and the Federation Ministry of Education, it is not clear how to cope with the autonomy of Cantons on educational issues, when it comes to the implementation of agreements. The development of the educational systems in BiH towards an institution capable of providing non-discriminatory education and preparing the young generation to live and support a democratic Bosnia and Herzegovina is a big task demanding intensive engagement. The author recommends the following be taken into consideration as regards further engagement: In the current political climate chances for the success of overall reform initiatives as currently pursued (textbook review and curriculum development) are very limited, given the lack of pressure from the International Community. The OHR has to increase pressure on relevant local authorities, including the removal of obstructive politicians and other officials. Also, the improvement of co-operation and co-ordination between the Federation Ministry and the cantonal ministries dealing with education should be a major aim. Furthermore, the OHR should increase efforts to convince the other international actors active in the educational sector to concentrate their support on co-operative and moderate educational institutions. Even with increased pressure, the situation is unlikely to change quickly. While OHR and other international organisations work at the political level, an independent expert team should work on a strategic reform program for education in BiH. In order not to waste precious time, the reform program should be already available while the political stage is being prepared for less nationalistic educational policy. The team should be made up of two specialists from all three sides with high personal integrity and expertise, following moderate approaches, and one foreign specialist providing assistance. In order to guarantee their (political) independence, they should be carefully selected, be employed full-time for one year (option for two years), and provided with an appropriate salary. No interim results should be made public. Funds for the development of the educational sector have to be shifted from physical reconstruction to the development of human resources (teacher training, civic education programs, democracy and tolerance building projects). As far as physical reconstruction is concerned, support should be concentrated on educational institutions open for co-operation and moderate approaches. Support for local initiatives should be significantly increased. Local NGOs and initiatives will have an important role in the longer term, when international engagement will decline. Serious and well-organised local initiatives are generally cheaper, more effective and they secure self-sustainability. Efforts to identify and support such organisations should be increased. For the same reasons also international programs should involve more local expertise. The problem of returnee children not belonging to the majority group in respective areas cannot wait for a new curriculum. It has to be addressed immediately in order to find an interim solution. The involvement of members of all ethnic communities in projects not directly related to tolerance issues, has brought some results and should be continued. In the given situation individual experience of co-operation is an effective weapon to fight prejudices and build trust. About the author: Christof Bender worked from August 1997 to October 1998 for World University Service (WUS) Austria in Sarajevo. 1 Individuals returning to their pre-war homes in an area, where they do not belong to the ethnic majority. 2 In the RS religious classes for non-Serbs are not mandatory. In the Federation the situation differs from Canton to Canton. With some exceptions like in the primary schools of Canton 10 religious courses are not compulsory. With some exceptions like the Una-Sana Canton religious courses are organised only for the respective majority group. 3 ECMM/OSCE, The Educational System in Bosnia and Herzegovina, spring 1998, p. 6. 4 The responsibility for all governmental functions not explicitly mentioned in the constitution are transferred to the entities. See The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Annex 4: Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Article III/3/(a). 5 On one hand, the constitution of the Federation mentions "making education policy, including decisions concerning the regulation and provision of education" a responsibility of the cantons ("The Constitution of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina", III.4.b, in: Ustav Bosne I Hercegovine, Federacije Bosne I Hercegovine, Republike Srpske, svih Kantona-Zupanija Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo: Federalno Ministarstvo pravde, 1997, p. 143). On the other hand, the Federation Minister refers to the Federation responsibility to guarantee and enforce human rights (III.2.a, op. cit.), which he also perceives as of relevance for curricula and textbook issues. But responsibility for affairs mentioned in Article 2 are allocated to both the Federation as well as to the cantons. According to Article 3, "As appropriate, the responsibilities in Article 2 may be exercised jointly or separately, or by the Cantons as co-ordinated by the Federation Government. Accordingly, the Cantons and the Federation Government shall consult one another on an ongoing basis with regard to these responsibilities." Even within the Federation Ministry there is no common view about this point. The (Croat) deputy minister argues that the ministry can make suggestions, but that implementation is up to each canton. In 1997, the governors of the Gorazde Canton (Bosniac) and the West Herzegovina Canton (Croat) refused to implement an instruction from the Federation Ministry for Education, Science, Culture, and Sports. See p. 7. 6 Article V.1.2, see also amendment XV. 7 Letter of the Federation Ombudsmen to the Federation Minister of Education, Science, Culture, and Sports and his deputy, October 23, 1997 (unauthorised translation). 8 See Ermin CENGIC, "Universitas SDA", in DANI, 14 September 98, pp. 26-27, and Ermin CENGIC, "Pare i(li) autonomija", in DANI, 28 September 98, pp. 31-35. 9 Srebren DIZDAR, A Development and Perspectives of Teacher Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo: Federalno ministarstvo obrazovanja, nauke, kulture i sporta, 1998, p. 135. 10 Harold LYDALL, Yugoslavia in Crisis, Oxford: Clarendon, 1989, p. 27. 11 Short for Office of the High Representative, responsible for the implementation of the civil part of the Dayton Peace Agreement. 12 ECMM/OSCE, The Educational System in Bosnia and Herzegovina, spring 1998, pp. 2-5. 13 BiH TV evening news, 20 September 98. 14 Members of the government and international organisations met on February 3, 1998, leading to the "Sarajevo Declaration". Its major aims are the return of 20,000 minority pre-war residents to the Sarajevo Canton, the guarantee of equal treatment of all groups and the enforcement of Sarajevo as a really multiethnic canton. 15 One project is financed by the Canadian Embassy, the other by the OSCE. The Austrian Embassy is considering financing the third project. 16 Sarajevo Declaration, February 1998, paragraph 19. 17 "The international community will lend its full support to the people of Sarajevo in their efforts to promote returns and achieve a truly multiethnic society.", Sarajevo Declaration, paragraph 6. 18 Currently Civitas is also making efforts towards the inclusion of civic education in official curricula. 19 KulturKontakt Austria/OSCE, Democratic School Management, Project description. 20 Youth Supports Former Yugoslavia, Dutch Students Organisation. 21 European Community and World Bank, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Priority Reconstruction Program: Achievements and 1998 Needs, April 1998, p. 27. 22 On the 12th and 13th September 98 elections for the presidency of BiH, the House of Representatives of the Parliamentary assembly of BiH, the House of Representatives of the Parliament of the Federation, the Canton Assemblies, the President and Vice President of RS as well as the RS National Assembly were held.